May be a bit hard to follow, but I'm sure you get the point.
© 2009 The Anthropological Society of Nippon 107
ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Vol. 118(2), 107–116, 2010
Skeletal effects of castration on two eunuchs of Ming China
Jacqueline T. ENG
1*, Quanchao ZHANG
2, Hong ZHU
2
1Department of Anthropology, Western Michigan University, Kalamozoo, MI 49008, USA
2Research Center for Chinese Frontier Archaeology, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China
Received 30 April 2009; accepted 24 September 2009
Abstract The practice of castrating men is an ancient one. Eunuchs have served as guards to harems
and as palace chamberlains for many early courts, but details about their lives are often hazy or shrouded
in secrecy. Although the changes wrought to their physical appearance from castration are well documented,
little is known about the magnitude of the skeletal changes resulting from the loss of sex
hormones associated with the procedure. Such a loss of hormones, especially before puberty, affects
skeletal growth and development and may result in early osteoporosis as well as impacting quality of
life. The burials of two eunuchs from the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD) of imperial China provide
an opportunity to examine the consequences of castration upon the human skeleton. These eunuchs
may have been castrated at different periods in their lives. One eunuch appears to have been castrated
before the development of secondary sexual characteristics; the delayed epiphyseal closure accompanying
androgen deficiency may account for his long limbs. Skeletal evidence also sheds light on the
lives of these eunuchs, including their oral health, history of childhood stress, and activity patterns.
Key words: castration, eunuch, height, paleopathology, China
Introduction
Castration is any action—surgical, chemical, or otherwise—
by which a biological male loses testicular function.
Eunuchs (castrated men) were part of the societies of ancient
Mesopotamia, Assyria, Israel, Ethiopia, Egypt, Persia,
Greece, Rome, Byzantium, Korea, and China (Tsai, 1996;
Scholz, 2001). In the 16th–19th centuries, castrati such as
Farinelli were castrated before puberty to preserve their soprano
voices for opera and for liturgical singing in the Catholic
Church (Jenkins, 1998). In Eastern Europe, members of
the Christian Skoptzy sect (18th–early 20th century) underwent
castration in response to Christ’s counsel to amputate
body parts to attain purity through the avoidance of sin
(Matthew 18: 8–9 and 19: 12 KJV). Even today, castrated
men (hijra) exist in India and small numbers of eunuchs
serve as guards in parts of the Middle East (Scholz, 2001,
p. 26), while countries such as the United States sometimes
castrate men as social control measures for deviant aggressive
and sexual behavior, either surgically or via other means
such as chemical treatment (Scott and Holmberg, 2003). In
ancient cultures, eunuchs were entrusted to guard women’s
quarters or act as chamberlains because they were deemed
safe from the sexual appetites that tempted normal men.
Arguably the most famous and long lasting example of
eunuch service is in China, where the eunuch system was
firmly entrenched in the imperial culture and persisted for
over 25 dynasties (4000 years) until the early 20th century
when the last emperor was removed from power.
Castration procedure in imperial China
While castration typically involves the removal or mutilation
of the testes, the penis may also be removed (penectomy),
and this total removal of external genitalia was the
practice in dynastic China (Mitamura, 1970). In the late 19th
century, Stent (1877) gathered data on the castration procedure
of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 AD). More recent interviews
with surviving eunuchs indicate that procedures
were relatively similar in the later years of the dynasty. As
described by Anderson (1990), the operations were performed
by government-approved, unsalaried specialists outside
the western gate of the imperial palace. During the procedure,
the abdomen and upper thighs were tightly bound
with strings or bandages, and then the genitalia were washed
in hot pepper-water as a local anesthetic. While semireclined
and held down by assistants, the specialist used a
slightly curved blade (Figure 1) to slice off the scrotum, penis,
and testes with a single cut (Wong and Wu, 1932). A
plug was inserted into the urethra to prevent stricture formation,
and the wound was covered and bound with moistened
paper. The new eunuch was made to walk around for 2–3
hours before being allowed to lie down. During the next
three days after the operation the eunuch was not allowed to
drink water or urinate. After this period, the plug was removed,
and if urine appeared, the operation was deemed a
success, with full recovery of the wound expected after
about 100 days. In addition to severe pain, however, many
died from hemorrhage, infection, urine blockage, or other
complications, and urinary incontinence appears to have
* Correspondence to: Jacqueline T. Eng, Department of Anthropology,
1045 Moore Hall, Western Michigan University, Kalamozoo,
MI 49008, USA.
E-mail:
[email protected]
Published online 1 December 2009
in J-STAGE (
www.jstage.jst.go.jp) DOI: 10.1537/ase090430
108 J.T. ENG ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE
been a common occurrence.
The mortality rate for such an operation was reportedly
not higher than found for any other surgery at the time, with
about 2% for eunuchs of the Qing Dynasty (Wu and Gu,
1991). This rate is considerably lower than other accounts of
high mortality from other regions, such as a survival rate of
only 25% for those castrated in Coptic monasteries in Egypt
for the slave trade, possibly owing to differences in sanitary
conditions (Scholz, 2001). The highest documented mortality
rate in China was during the early Ming Dynasty (1368–
1644 AD) when 329 of the 1565 boys (20%) from the defeated
Miao tribe in southwest China died from the castration
procedure (Tsai, 1996).
Previous studies: physical effects of castration
Little research has been published about the skeletal
consequences of castration in humans (see Zitzmann and
Nieschlag, 2001, for critique of studies), although many reports
describe the endocrinological effects of castration on
laboratory animals (e.g. Wink and Felts, 1980; Schenck and
Slob, 1986; Zumpe et al., 1992; Dixson, 1993; Davis, 2000).
Castrated males lose function of their testicles, and are thus
sterile and have greatly reduced production of sex hormones,
testosterone in particular. Silberberg and Silberberg (1971)
have summarized previous research on the effects that the
absence or deficiency of sex steroids have on the skeletal development
of humans and other mammals. In particular, testicular
hormones strongly influence the development of tubular
and flat bones, as well as the development of
secondary sexual characteristics. Testicular deficiency causes
a delay in the closure of epiphyses and the age at which
they normally unite during puberty. The earlier that castration
occurs, the longer the delay until epiphyseal closure.
This delay results in disproportionately long bone lengths
between those elements that fuse before puberty, which are
not at all or less affected by castration, and the long bones
whose epiphyses normally unite during puberty. Thus, deprivation
of male steroid hormones delays closure of epiphyses
and prolongs the growth period, and also influences the
maintenance of bones.
In animals such as rats and macaques, osteoporosis has
been linked to castration owing to the subsequent loss in
male sex hormones (Wink and Felts, 1980; Schenck and
Slob, 1986). Other studies have been conducted on men who
have undergone orchiectomy (removal of a testicle), or
chemical castration as hormone therapy for prostate cancer.
Both forms of castration result in osteoporosis as measured
by femoral neck mineral density (Daniell et al., 2000), and
appear to increase susceptibility to osteoporotic fractures
(Daniell, 1997; Smith et al., 2006). It has been suggested that
osteoporosis in castrated males is linked to: (1) the absence
of protein-anabolic action of the male steroids, which leads
to decreased osteogenesis during remodeling; and (2) decreased
bulk and strength of the skeletal muscles (Heller and
Shipley, 1951).
Most medical studies have focused on hypogonadism as
the cause of androgen loss in human males, although a few
studies have been conducted on eunuchs. Read (1921) studied
the metabolism of eunuchs by analyzing urine samples
from several adult “Oriental” eunuchs. The eunuchs secreted
abnormally high levels of ammonia and creatine, which
were comparable to levels normally expected from a prepubescent
boy or female (or an adult male afflicted by certain
types of illnesses or dietary problems). One eunuch castrated
at age 29, after the development of secondary sex characteristics,
secreted creatine levels comparable to normal males.
Read concluded that the removal of male sexual organs in
prepubescent males results in the eventual chemical and
physical development of secondary female characters in
those castrated males.
More recent clinical studies are limited to men who have
been castrated for health issues, or surgical repair for those
castrated from assault or accidents, while studies of genital
self-mutilation mainly focus on the psychological aspects
(Catalano et al., 2002; Brett et al., 2007; Wassersug and
Johnson, 2007). Studies of the hijras (also known as hijada)
in India mainly concentrate on the cultural aspects of their
institutionalized third-gender role (e.g. Nanda, 1985; Patel,
1988), while issues of health often center on risky sexual behaviors
(e.g. Baqi et al., 2006), making generalizations of
their health status problematic. Investigations into the longterm
health effects of castration have focused on three
groups of men: the Skoptzy; the court eunuchs of the Chinese
Empire; and those of the Ottoman Empire (Wilson and
Roehrborn, 1999). The numbers among all three groups
have dwindled significantly, and the last known eunuch of
the Chinese imperial court died in 1996 (Seth, 1996).
Wilson and Roehrborn (1999) have summarized the most
commonly documented long-term medical consequences of
castration upon these three groups of men. The health effects
include: enlargement of the pituitary, breast enlargement
(gynecomastia), reduction and/or disappearance of the prostate,
and skeletal changes. Of the latter, osteoporosis in the
form of bone thinning in the skull and kyphosis of the spine,
and the failure of epiphyseal closure were documented
among Skoptzy and Chinese eunuchs. The effects were typically
more pronounced in those eunuchs who had been castrated
at a younger age, before development of secondary
sexual characteristics. These physiological changes also appear
in modern clinical studies of males with hypogonadism
and androgen deprivation (Heller and Shipley, 1951; Wilson
et al., 1980; Flaig and Glode, 2008).
Wu and Gu (1991) also studied the long-term effects of
castration upon 26 surviving eunuchs of the Chinese Qing
court. Seven became eunuchs between the ages of 10 and 14
Figure 1. Implements used to castrate men of the Chinese imperial
court. Redrawn from Wong and Wu (1932) by J. Eng.
Vol. 118, 2010 SKELETAL EFFECTS OF CASTRATION 109
years, and 18 between 16 and 26 years, while one could not
recall. At time of their examination in 1960, the men comprising
this sample had been eunuchs for an average of 54
years. Characteristics they shared with descriptions of other
castrated men included: beardlessness; enlargement of
breasts in nine eunuchs out of 25; tall stature in 12 (where
height > 170 cm); and five displayed unusually small prostates.
The average height was 167.7 cm (range 152–
179 cm), and five of the tallest 12 had been castrated before
the age of 15 years.
Physical characteristics also ascribed to court eunuchs include
increase of body weight and voice change to a more
falsetto pitch. The former may be attributed to the reduction
in physical activity and the ready availability of food as a
palace servant. Clinical studies of patients with orchiectomy
show an average weight gain of 10% that is generally localized
in the abdominal and hip region, which increased patient
risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Zitzmann
and Nieschlag, 2001; Keating et al., 2006). Moreover,
changes in the lungs and cardiovascular systems from hormonal
changes decreased the ability for efficient oxygen uptake
and blood flow throughout the body (Tsai, 1996), also
likely resulting in decreased physical exertion. The retention
of a boyish, high voice stems from low levels of testosterone
during puberty, which prevents male-type laryngeal development
(Jenkins, 1998). The dramatic decrease in sex steroids
also leads to general loss of elasticity, with wrinkling
of the skin, stiffening of joints, and decrease in muscle
strength (Tsai, 1996). There is no evidence that castration
significantly affects male lifespan (Wilson and Roehrborn,
1999).
Studies of human castration have many limitations, not
the least of which is the relative rarity of modern cases and
cultural taboos. The long history of institutionalized eunuchism
in ancient China provides the potential to study the
health consequences of castration from a biocultural standpoint.
This paper describes the skeletal remains of two adult
eunuchs from pre-modern China, documenting the skeletal
and dental changes that may be associated with castration, as
well as skeletal changes reflective of the imperial servant
lifestyle.
Materials and Methods
In 2003 the skeletal remains of two adult males were excavated
by a team led by Professor Chen Guang (then at the
Peking Archaeological Institute). These burials were located
in the cemetery at Wutasi, Beijing, People’s Republic of
China. This cemetery had over 60 burials, with several
tombs marked as interments of Ming Dynasty (1368–1644
AD) palace eunuchs based on the associated tomb inscriptions
(Di and Cao, 2003). Among these eunuch burials, the
two studied in this paper include one eunuch we designated
Burial M1, while the second, given the designation of Burial
M2, had a tomb inscription and documentation in his burial
indicating the eunuch’s name was ‘Huang Zhong,’ a eunuch
of the Ming period (C. Guang, personal communication).
Unfortunately, there are no other publications on the analysis
of the excavation that could help verify with certainty the
eunuch status of all burials labeled as such, but it has been
documented in other cases that tomb inscriptions indicated
the eunuch status of those interred, as such people were at
times accorded relatively high status and given elaborate
burial treatments reflecting that power (Mai, 1977). Thus,
based on archeological context, these individuals, whose
tomb inscriptions labeled them as eunuchs, are indeed eunuchs,
and the osteological evidence also suggests a life of
labor and/or abnormalities in epiphyseal closure that are associated
with eunuchism. The remains were examined while
they were held at the Research Center for Chinese Frontier
Archaeology at Jilin University, Jilin Province.
Osteological analysis followed protocol outlined in Standards
for Data Collection of Human Skeletal Remains
(Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). Owing to limitations in time
and available equipment, osteological examination by one
author (J. Eng) were conducted within a day and consisted of
macroscopic observation and photographic documentation,
without aid of an osteometric board to measure long bone
length. The lengths of long bones were later estimated based
on these photographs (taken with a scale) to approximate
maximum lengths in centimeters. To determine the accuracy
of these measurements estimated from photographs as compared
to measurements from an osteometric board, J. Eng
conducted a pilot study with sample adult long bones
(n = 11). The same camera was used, replicating the staging
of the photographs (i.e. location of the scale by the bones,
angle of focus, and camera distance), and the procedure was
repeated three times. Maximum length measurements estimated
from the photographs of these sample bones were
then compared to similar measurements taken from an osteometric
board. The average standard deviation was a
2.4 mm over-measurement based on photographs, which
shows that this technique produces relatively little measurement
error.
The remains of the two individuals were well preserved
with fully intact skulls (Figure 2), although not all postcranial
elements had been recovered. They were clearly discrete
individuals, not only indicated by the fact that the excavators
had packed them separately and by the different colorations
of the remains, attributable to differences in soil conditions
for each burial, but also suggested by the body size and
chronological age differences between the two skeletons
(discussed below). Observations were made for sex and age
determinations, and pathological conditions and activityrelated
skeletal changes were also recorded.
Case 1: Burial M1
Burial M1 is that of a relatively complete skeleton, but has
some postmortem damage and is missing the right humerus,
radius, and ulna, hand and foot bones, as well as several vertebrae.
Age-related changes to pelvic morphology suggest
that this person was in his mid-30s at time of death. Other
features support this age assessment, including the degree of
cranial suture closure, tooth wear, and full epiphyseal closure
of all long bones. Sexually dimorphic features of the
skull and pelvis are clearly male. On the basicranium, just
anterior to the right occipital condyle, the bone is thin and
extremely porous, which may be the result of localized postmortem
damage, although adjacent bony elements are not
affected (Figure 3).
110 J.T. ENG ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE
The central maxillary incisors and right M1 have lesions
from linear enamel hypoplasia, with three arrest lesions on
left I1, two on right I1, and one on right M1. Crown formation
of these affected teeth occurs at about the same time, so the
lesions likely reflect the same stress events. There is evidence
of an alveolar abscess around right M3, antemortem
tooth loss of left I1, and slight alveolar resorption around left
M1 and right M1. The left mandibular condyle displays slight
proliferative growth on the superior portion, and is more bulbous
than the right, suggesting slight temporomandibular
joint disease on the left, although the condylar fossa exhibits
no change.
Degenerative changes (pitting, marginal new bone proliferation,
and/or eburnation) were observed in the following
postcranial joints: the left shoulder, left elbow, left hip, and
left knee, which has eburnation on the anterior portion of the
lateral condyle (Figure 4). All of the five preserved vertebrae
(one cervical, two thoracic, two lumbar) show moderate
development of osteophytes on the margins of their bodies,
Figure 2. Skulls of eunuchs, anterior and left lateral views. (Above) Burial M1. (Below) Burial M2.
Figure 3. Right basioccipital of Burial M1 displays porosity.
Vol. 118, 2010 SKELETAL EFFECTS OF CASTRATION 111
and both lumbar vertebrae exhibit a Schmorl’s node on the
superior surface.
The left tibia has a healed fracture just distal to midshaft
that resulted in a shortening of about 6 mm in length relative
to the right tibia (Figure 5). Associated with this healed fracture
are the remnants of slight bony buildup of the callus located
on the medial aspect, as well as osteoperiostitis in the
surrounding area, extending 11.9 cm.
Case 2: Burial M2 (‘Huang Zhong’)
This male, named ‘Huang Zhong,’ is also a relatively
complete skeleton, missing only the smaller elements (hand
and some foot bones), most vertebrae, clavicles, and ribs.
Age estimation included assessment of multiple indicators of
development. The epiphyses of several long bones were only
partially fused or completely unfused, in the case of his distal
ulnae. This pattern of fusion would normally indicate that
he died in his mid-to-late teens (Table 1). However, castration
is known to delay the rate of epiphysis closure in individuals
castrated before maturity (Silberberg and Silberberg,
1971), while tooth formation is regulated more strongly by
non-sex steroids such as growth hormone (Zhang et al.,
1992). In his case, the third molars had fully erupted and
have slight wear, and furthermore, the auricular surface retains
slight (youthful) transverse ridges. Thus, based on the
dental (and pelvic auricular) information ‘Huang Zhong’
(Burial M2) was likely a young adult, about 20–24 years old
at death.
Compared to Burial M1, who was in his 30s at time of
death, Burial M2 has much less overall wear on teeth,
consistent with a younger adult age determination. Several
Figure 4. Distal left femur of Burial M1 with osteoarthritis; note
the eburnation.
Figure 5. Tibiae of Burial M2. (Above) Fracture just below midshaft of left tibia, seen as superior tibia. (Below) Left tibia, healed fracture.
112 J.T. ENG ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE
sexually dimorphic features of the cranium (supraorbital
margin, glabella, mastoid process, and nuchal area) are ambiguous,
but the mandible, subpubic region, and greater sciatic
notch have a male morphology. The pelvic morphology
is relatively diagnostic considering his young age (e.g.
Walker, 2005).
There are two linear enamel hypoplasia lesions present on
the lower right canine. The lower left central and lateral incisors
(Figure 6) have ‘fused’ crowns and roots (also known
as ‘double teeth’ or ‘twinning’), a result of primary developmental
abnormalities of the teeth whereby two separate
tooth buds united at some time during their development
(Aguilo et al., 1999).
The postcranial elements do not have any marked pathological
conditions. There is no skeletal indication as to cause
of death. As seen in Table 2, the length of Burial M2’s long
bones and associated stature estimates are substantially
longer than those of Burial M1. Using femur length to calculate
stature based on Trotter and Gleser (1958), Burial M1
has a stature of approximately 179 cm, while Burial M2 has
a stature of approximately 188 cm. In addition to his tall stature,
the bones from Burial M2 were relatively gracile.
Long bone dimensions
To determine whether body size and long bone lengths of
the two burials were affected by the documented hormonal
effects of castration, these data were compared to measurements
taken from other archeological skeletal samples collected
by the primary author (J. Eng). These other samples
derive from different time periods and varied sites along
China’s northern region and from central China in Henan
province (Eng, 2007; Walker and Eng, 2007). Mean measurements
of the humerus, femur, and tibia from these samples
were compared to the corresponding eunuch long bone
measurement where available (the ulna and radius of Burial
M2 were not included owing to lack of distal epiphyseal fusion)
(Table 3). The measures of the eunuch long bones
were then transformed to Z-scores to compare with each region
(Table 4).
In most instances, the long bones of both eunuchs were
longer than the comparative groups (Z-score > 2.00). Both
eunuchs have longer femoral lengths than the comparative
regions (except for Burial M1’s comparison to the northwestern
sample). Of note are the unusually high Z-scores of
Burial M2, the eunuch who may have been castrated in his
youth. Burial M2 has Z-scores of 5.00 SD or higher compared
to all groups except the northwestern sample, where
the Z-score was still above 2.00. On the other hand, the data
on humerofemoral and crural limb proportions (respectively,
humerus: femur and tibia: femur) of these eunuchs fall within
the range of proportions found in the comparative samples
(Table 5).
Discussion
The earliest records of eunuchs in China consist of pictographs
on the oracle bones of the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty
Table 1. Age estimation (years) of Burial M2 based on rates of
epiphyseal fusiona
Bone Beginning Active Complete
Proximal humerus 19–20
Distal humerus 16
Proximal ulna 18–19
Distal ulna 17b
Proximal radius 18–19
Distal radius 17
Proximal femur (head) 17–18
Distal femur 16–21
Proximal tibia 16–22
Distal tibia 17–18
a From McKern (1970, n.d.), McKern and Stewart (1957) and
Ubelaker (1989). Note, estimates from these sources derive from
North American male samples.
b Element completely unfused.
Figure 6. Mandibular left incisors of Burial M2 display fusion.
To the left is a labial view, and to the right is a lingual view.
Table 2. Maximum lengths and stature estimatesa (in cm) of Burial
M1 and Burial M2
M1 Side Length Stature ±
Femur Left 49.5 178.995 3.8
Tibia Left 37.4b 170.836b 3.27
Tibia Right 38.0c 172.27c 3.27
M2
Femur Left 53.6 187.81 3.8
Femur Right 53.5 187.595 3.8
Tibia Left 44.5 187.805 3.27
Tibia Right 42.0 181.83 3.27
Fibula Left 42.0 181.36 3.24
Humerus Right 38.2 185.03 4.16
Radius Left 27.6d
Radius Right 23.8d
Ulna Left 28.8d
Ulna Right 25.8d
a Stature estimate based on Trotter and Glessar (1958) formulae for
Mongoloid sample.
b Fractured left tibia, which shortened maximum length.
c Missing the tip of the medial malleolus and hence this is an estimate
of maximum length.
d Unfused distal epiphysis, which precluded stature estimates.
Vol. 118, 2010 SKELETAL EFFECTS OF CASTRATION 113
(17th century–1122 BC). Eunuchs were known generally as
huanguan, or taijian, with differentiation made between
those castrated in childhood (‘pure from birth’) and those
emasculated in adulthood (‘pure of body’). Males were castrated
to make them ‘safer’ servants for the royal court and
also as a form of punishment that was considered second
only to death in severity. The primary source for eunuchs
was prisoners of war taken during campaigns against frontier
and neighboring hostile groups. Another source came
from tributes: eunuchism was practically Pan-Asian, and
countries such as Korea and northern Vietnam regularly sent
castrati as tribute to China (Tsai, 1996). There was also a domestic
supply of eunuchs from among the impoverished
peasants, often from poorer southern provinces. In these areas
that often suffered famine, the only recourse from starvation
or sale into slavery was self-castration or castration of a
son, since imperial eunuchs were assured a life of relative
comfort with regular stipend, room and board within palace
walls. While self-castration was repeatedly prohibited, when
dynasties such as the Ming sank into financial decay, desperate
males, often adults, took this course of action and clamored
for work at the palace (Anderson, 1990).
Eunuchs served the emperor, his queens and concubines,
and other members of the royal family. During the Ming Dynasty
there were 24 official agencies charged with various
aspects of palace maintenance, including care of furniture,
gardens, kitchens, rituals, cloths, entertainment, and armory,
so that their presence permeated all aspects of imperial life
(Mitamura, 1970). Beginning in the Ming Dynasty, some
were educated and became imperial secretaries, furthering
eunuch infiltration into the inner circles of the court. Ancient
Chinese historians describe them as venal, greedy sycophants,
perhaps in part because of jealousy over eunuchs’ intimate
access and influence over the emperor and imperial
policy (Yi, 1951; Tsai, 1996). By the end of the Ming Dynasty,
the number of eunuchs nationwide swelled to an estimated
100000, and they were fixtures of nearly every governmental
agency. The cases of eunuchs who wielded
extreme power were relatively rare, and most palace eunuchs
led routine lives that were restricted and dull (Tsai,
1996). In the present study, the burial treatment and lack of
elaborate grave goods associated with the two burials analyzed
here suggest they were ordinary eunuchs, though
‘Huang Zhong’ may have been a eunuch of some note as his
name was inscribed for his tomb.
Interpretation of Ming sample
Long bone lengths and height
The skeletal effects of castration are more clearly evident
in the long-limbed Burial M2, the young adult ‘Huang
Zhong.’ As noted previously, there is likely to be some slight
over-measurement (approximately 2.4 mm) using the photographs
to estimate long bone length, but even accounting for
that difference, the limbs are still relatively long. When observing
the humerofemoral and crural limb proportions of
these individuals to comparative ancient Asian samples,
there is no marked difference, suggesting there was no unusual
disproportion in limb development in these eunuchs.
On the other hand, the maximum lengths of Burial M2’s humerus,
femur, and tibia are significantly greater than that of
the comparative samples. Taken together, the longer limb dimensions
of Burial M2 and the retarded rate of epiphyseal
Table 3. Long bone measurements (in cm) of eunuch burialsa compared with archeological skeletal datab from China
Region Time
Humerus Femur Tibia
n Avg. SD n Avg. SD n Avg. SD
Northwestern 2000 BC–220 AD 35 31.9 1.560 52 45.1 2.412 40 36.8 2.506
North central 1000 BC–1368 AD 3 31.7 0.611 24 43.2 1.968 9 35.2 1.604
Northeastern 3800 BC–1368 AD 88 31.1 1.300 141 43.8 1.867 131 34.7 1.664
Central 476 BC–220 AD 21 30.8 1.396 18 42.8 1.756 16 34.6 1.648
Burial M1 n/a 49.5 38.0c
Burial M2 38.2 53.6 43.3
a Measurements of eunuch long bone lengths were averaged if both sides of an element were present.
b The comparative Asian data are recalculated from raw data collected by one author (J. Eng) in the northern provinces and from the centrally
located Henan province (Eng, 2007; Walker and Eng, 2007). The left and right elements of an individual were averaged, and the average of the
total sample region is presented here.
c This is an estimate of maximum length of right tibia, missing the tip of the medial malleolus. The left tibia was shortened in life owing to a fracture
and was not used here.
Table 4. Z-scores comparisona of eunuch (Burial M1 and Burial
M2) measurements with archeological skeletal data from China
Humerus Femur Tibia
M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2
Northwestern NA 4.04 1.82 3.52 0.48 2.59
North central NA 10.64 3.20 5.28 1.75 5.05
Northeastern NA 5.46 3.05 5.25 1.98 5.17
Central NA 5.30 3.82 6.15 2.06 5.28
a Italics indicate Z-scores lower than 2.00 SD.
Table 5. Comparison of limb proportions of the eunuchs, Burial M1
and Burial M2, with archeological skeletal data from China
Humerus: Femur Tibia: Femur
Northwestern 0.71 0.82
North central 0.73 0.82
Northeastern 0.72 0.79
Central 0.72 0.81
Burial M1 NA 0.77
Burial M2 0.71 0.81
114 J.T. ENG ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE
closure relative to tooth development in this individual suggest
that Burial M2 was castrated before puberty. However,
when compared to the average height (168 cm) of surviving
20th-century Chinese eunuchs in Wu and Gu’s (1991) study,
both Burial M1 and Burial M2 are taller than Wu and Gu’s
criterion for tall stature (height > 170 cm). Thus, with respect
to the marked differences between the long bone
lengths of these two eunuchs, this may be a factor of: (1) genetic
heterogeneity and height potential related to their origins
from different populations; or (2) the different ages at
which they were each castrated, with the longer-limbed
Burial M2 castrated in pre-puberty before epiphyseal closure
of long bones; or (3) individual differences in frailty between
them including influences from childhood health and
nutrition. These factors may not be mutually exclusive.
Osteoporosis
Although circumstances prevented weighing and taking
radiographs of the skeletons, bones did not feel markedly
lighter than ‘normal’ ancient bones of East and Central
Asian populations that the authors have observed. Burial M1
has some signs suggestive of osteoporosis, though these indicators
may be due to his more advanced age at death. His
skull has slight porosity in the basioccipital area, and although
the localization of the visible porosity does not fully
support osteoporosis, there may have been further thinning
not immediately visible throughout the skull. Burial M1 had
few vertebrae to study for possible kyphosis, but there are
degenerative changes in all vertebrae present, which may
also be due to age-related changes or lifestyle. The healed
fracture on the left tibia may also be (very slight) evidence
for osteoporosis, though accidental injury is a much more
likely cause.
Oral health
The presence of enamel hypoplasia on both eunuchs indicates
stress during childhood, which may be expected as
most eunuchs of this period were either castrated to escape
poverty, to serve as tributes, or as prisoners of war. Neither
individual has dental caries, but Burial M1 has an aveolar
abscess, antemortem loss of a tooth, and resorption of the
alveolar bone—all indicative of poor dental health. The
fused left incisors in Burial M2’s mandible marks a relatively
rare find, at least among people of European ancestry (less
than 1%, e.g. Jarvinen et al., 1980; Barac-Furtinovic and
Skrinjaric, 1991), although it was found in slightly higher
frequencies (~4%) in one modern Japanese sample (Yonezu
et al., 1997). When present, it is more prevalent in males and
in the anterior teeth, usually of the mandible (Razak and
Nik-Hussein, 1986; Duncan and Helpin, 1987; Yonezu et
al., 1997). Although no environmental factors have been
linked to the development of fused teeth, it is more frequent
among siblings (Razak and Nik-Hussein, 1986). Clinical
problems associated with fused teeth include increased prevalence
of caries, supernumerary teeth, impaction of successors,
and aplasia (Brook and Winter, 1970; Ravn, 1971), but
such was not the case for Burial M2, whose teeth appeared
unaffected.
Degenerative joint disease
Burial M1 has signs of degenerative changes at several
major joints, while Burial M2 has none. Burial M1 was older
than Burial M2 at age of death, which may account for the
higher observation of degenerative lesions. It should also be
noted that castrated boys were often more favored by the
court ladies and treated like young girls, and thus had fewer
manual labor activities than adult eunuchs (Mitamura,
1970). Thus, if Burial M2 had been castrated in youth, and
died soon afterwards in his early adulthood, this may explain
why it appears he led a relatively less active lifestyle than
Burial M1.
Conclusion
The burials of two Ming palace eunuchs provide new insight
into the skeletal changes associated with castration, as
well as clues to eunuch life in the Chinese imperial court.
These eunuchs may have been castrated at different periods
of growth and development, as suggested by the long limbs
and partially fused epiphyses of the young adult ‘Huang
Zhong’ (Burial M2). Arthritic changes and a healed fracture
in Burial M1 suggests he led a harsher life than experienced
by Burial M2, who may have had a more pampered life favored
by court ladies, if he was castrated in youth. Dental
health suggests both experienced childhood stress, possibly
owing to poverty or wartime, which may have precipitated
their entry into the financially secure eunuch service. While
this report has offered some new information on the lives of
two eunuchs from the Ming Dynasty, it is by no means a
general life characterization of the health of eunuchs. Future
studies of other eunuch burials will shed further light into
this once secretive, yet fascinating cultural phenomenon.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by support given to J. Eng by
the following granting agencies during an early visit to
China (in 2003) and during the collection of her dissertation
data: Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Research Abroad Program
(Award No. p022a040064); Pacific Rim Research Grant,
University of California (Project Reference No. 04TPRRP
08-0011); Humanities and Social Sciences Research Grant,
UCSB; and the National Science Foundation Graduate Research
Fellowship. The authors would like to extend deepest
thanks to Professor Chen Guang for permission to analyze
the material. J. Eng would like to thank her dissertation advisor,
Dr Phillip Walker, and several members of the Walker
Lab who read and commented on early drafts.
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