A very interesting article - skeletal effects on chinese eunuchs

[wolf0046 (imported)]

I found this article and bring you the link:

https://www.academia.edu/1145922/Skelet ... nuchs_of_M ing_China?email_work_card=title

Bests regards!!!

[Paolo]

This is sort of a pain in the ass to download, so if anyone wants it, email me at [email protected] and I'll send it to you.

[Paolo]

May be a bit hard to follow, but I'm sure you get the point.

© 2009 The Anthropological Society of Nippon 107

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

Vol. 118(2), 107–116, 2010

Skeletal effects of castration on two eunuchs of Ming China

Jacqueline T. ENG

1*, Quanchao ZHANG

2, Hong ZHU

2

1Department of Anthropology, Western Michigan University, Kalamozoo, MI 49008, USA

2Research Center for Chinese Frontier Archaeology, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China

Received 30 April 2009; accepted 24 September 2009

Abstract The practice of castrating men is an ancient one. Eunuchs have served as guards to harems

and as palace chamberlains for many early courts, but details about their lives are often hazy or shrouded

in secrecy. Although the changes wrought to their physical appearance from castration are well documented,

little is known about the magnitude of the skeletal changes resulting from the loss of sex

hormones associated with the procedure. Such a loss of hormones, especially before puberty, affects

skeletal growth and development and may result in early osteoporosis as well as impacting quality of

life. The burials of two eunuchs from the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644 AD) of imperial China provide

an opportunity to examine the consequences of castration upon the human skeleton. These eunuchs

may have been castrated at different periods in their lives. One eunuch appears to have been castrated

before the development of secondary sexual characteristics; the delayed epiphyseal closure accompanying

androgen deficiency may account for his long limbs. Skeletal evidence also sheds light on the

lives of these eunuchs, including their oral health, history of childhood stress, and activity patterns.

Key words: castration, eunuch, height, paleopathology, China

Introduction

Castration is any action—surgical, chemical, or otherwise—

by which a biological male loses testicular function.

Eunuchs (castrated men) were part of the societies of ancient

Mesopotamia, Assyria, Israel, Ethiopia, Egypt, Persia,

Greece, Rome, Byzantium, Korea, and China (Tsai, 1996;

Scholz, 2001). In the 16th–19th centuries, castrati such as

Farinelli were castrated before puberty to preserve their soprano

voices for opera and for liturgical singing in the Catholic

Church (Jenkins, 1998). In Eastern Europe, members of

the Christian Skoptzy sect (18th–early 20th century) underwent

castration in response to Christ’s counsel to amputate

body parts to attain purity through the avoidance of sin

(Matthew 18: 8–9 and 19: 12 KJV). Even today, castrated

men (hijra) exist in India and small numbers of eunuchs

serve as guards in parts of the Middle East (Scholz, 2001,

p. 26), while countries such as the United States sometimes

castrate men as social control measures for deviant aggressive

and sexual behavior, either surgically or via other means

such as chemical treatment (Scott and Holmberg, 2003). In

ancient cultures, eunuchs were entrusted to guard women’s

quarters or act as chamberlains because they were deemed

safe from the sexual appetites that tempted normal men.

Arguably the most famous and long lasting example of

eunuch service is in China, where the eunuch system was

firmly entrenched in the imperial culture and persisted for

over 25 dynasties (4000 years) until the early 20th century

when the last emperor was removed from power.

Castration procedure in imperial China

While castration typically involves the removal or mutilation

of the testes, the penis may also be removed (penectomy),

and this total removal of external genitalia was the

practice in dynastic China (Mitamura, 1970). In the late 19th

century, Stent (1877) gathered data on the castration procedure

of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912 AD). More recent interviews

with surviving eunuchs indicate that procedures

were relatively similar in the later years of the dynasty. As

described by Anderson (1990), the operations were performed

by government-approved, unsalaried specialists outside

the western gate of the imperial palace. During the procedure,

the abdomen and upper thighs were tightly bound

with strings or bandages, and then the genitalia were washed

in hot pepper-water as a local anesthetic. While semireclined

and held down by assistants, the specialist used a

slightly curved blade (Figure 1) to slice off the scrotum, penis,

and testes with a single cut (Wong and Wu, 1932). A

plug was inserted into the urethra to prevent stricture formation,

and the wound was covered and bound with moistened

paper. The new eunuch was made to walk around for 2–3

hours before being allowed to lie down. During the next

three days after the operation the eunuch was not allowed to

drink water or urinate. After this period, the plug was removed,

and if urine appeared, the operation was deemed a

success, with full recovery of the wound expected after

about 100 days. In addition to severe pain, however, many

died from hemorrhage, infection, urine blockage, or other

complications, and urinary incontinence appears to have

* Correspondence to: Jacqueline T. Eng, Department of Anthropology,

1045 Moore Hall, Western Michigan University, Kalamozoo,

MI 49008, USA.

E-mail: [email protected]

Published online 1 December 2009

in J-STAGE (www.jstage.jst.go.jp) DOI: 10.1537/ase090430

108 J.T. ENG ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

been a common occurrence.

The mortality rate for such an operation was reportedly

not higher than found for any other surgery at the time, with

about 2% for eunuchs of the Qing Dynasty (Wu and Gu,

1991). This rate is considerably lower than other accounts of

high mortality from other regions, such as a survival rate of

only 25% for those castrated in Coptic monasteries in Egypt

for the slave trade, possibly owing to differences in sanitary

conditions (Scholz, 2001). The highest documented mortality

rate in China was during the early Ming Dynasty (1368–

1644 AD) when 329 of the 1565 boys (20%) from the defeated

Miao tribe in southwest China died from the castration

procedure (Tsai, 1996).

Previous studies: physical effects of castration

Little research has been published about the skeletal

consequences of castration in humans (see Zitzmann and

Nieschlag, 2001, for critique of studies), although many reports

describe the endocrinological effects of castration on

laboratory animals (e.g. Wink and Felts, 1980; Schenck and

Slob, 1986; Zumpe et al., 1992; Dixson, 1993; Davis, 2000).

Castrated males lose function of their testicles, and are thus

sterile and have greatly reduced production of sex hormones,

testosterone in particular. Silberberg and Silberberg (1971)

have summarized previous research on the effects that the

absence or deficiency of sex steroids have on the skeletal development

of humans and other mammals. In particular, testicular

hormones strongly influence the development of tubular

and flat bones, as well as the development of

secondary sexual characteristics. Testicular deficiency causes

a delay in the closure of epiphyses and the age at which

they normally unite during puberty. The earlier that castration

occurs, the longer the delay until epiphyseal closure.

This delay results in disproportionately long bone lengths

between those elements that fuse before puberty, which are

not at all or less affected by castration, and the long bones

whose epiphyses normally unite during puberty. Thus, deprivation

of male steroid hormones delays closure of epiphyses

and prolongs the growth period, and also influences the

maintenance of bones.

In animals such as rats and macaques, osteoporosis has

been linked to castration owing to the subsequent loss in

male sex hormones (Wink and Felts, 1980; Schenck and

Slob, 1986). Other studies have been conducted on men who

have undergone orchiectomy (removal of a testicle), or

chemical castration as hormone therapy for prostate cancer.

Both forms of castration result in osteoporosis as measured

by femoral neck mineral density (Daniell et al., 2000), and

appear to increase susceptibility to osteoporotic fractures

(Daniell, 1997; Smith et al., 2006). It has been suggested that

osteoporosis in castrated males is linked to: (1) the absence

of protein-anabolic action of the male steroids, which leads

to decreased osteogenesis during remodeling; and (2) decreased

bulk and strength of the skeletal muscles (Heller and

Shipley, 1951).

Most medical studies have focused on hypogonadism as

the cause of androgen loss in human males, although a few

studies have been conducted on eunuchs. Read (1921) studied

the metabolism of eunuchs by analyzing urine samples

from several adult “Oriental” eunuchs. The eunuchs secreted

abnormally high levels of ammonia and creatine, which

were comparable to levels normally expected from a prepubescent

boy or female (or an adult male afflicted by certain

types of illnesses or dietary problems). One eunuch castrated

at age 29, after the development of secondary sex characteristics,

secreted creatine levels comparable to normal males.

Read concluded that the removal of male sexual organs in

prepubescent males results in the eventual chemical and

physical development of secondary female characters in

those castrated males.

More recent clinical studies are limited to men who have

been castrated for health issues, or surgical repair for those

castrated from assault or accidents, while studies of genital

self-mutilation mainly focus on the psychological aspects

(Catalano et al., 2002; Brett et al., 2007; Wassersug and

Johnson, 2007). Studies of the hijras (also known as hijada)

in India mainly concentrate on the cultural aspects of their

institutionalized third-gender role (e.g. Nanda, 1985; Patel,

1988), while issues of health often center on risky sexual behaviors

(e.g. Baqi et al., 2006), making generalizations of

their health status problematic. Investigations into the longterm

health effects of castration have focused on three

groups of men: the Skoptzy; the court eunuchs of the Chinese

Empire; and those of the Ottoman Empire (Wilson and

Roehrborn, 1999). The numbers among all three groups

have dwindled significantly, and the last known eunuch of

the Chinese imperial court died in 1996 (Seth, 1996).

Wilson and Roehrborn (1999) have summarized the most

commonly documented long-term medical consequences of

castration upon these three groups of men. The health effects

include: enlargement of the pituitary, breast enlargement

(gynecomastia), reduction and/or disappearance of the prostate,

and skeletal changes. Of the latter, osteoporosis in the

form of bone thinning in the skull and kyphosis of the spine,

and the failure of epiphyseal closure were documented

among Skoptzy and Chinese eunuchs. The effects were typically

more pronounced in those eunuchs who had been castrated

at a younger age, before development of secondary

sexual characteristics. These physiological changes also appear

in modern clinical studies of males with hypogonadism

and androgen deprivation (Heller and Shipley, 1951; Wilson

et al., 1980; Flaig and Glode, 2008).

Wu and Gu (1991) also studied the long-term effects of

castration upon 26 surviving eunuchs of the Chinese Qing

court. Seven became eunuchs between the ages of 10 and 14

Figure 1. Implements used to castrate men of the Chinese imperial

court. Redrawn from Wong and Wu (1932) by J. Eng.

Vol. 118, 2010 SKELETAL EFFECTS OF CASTRATION 109

years, and 18 between 16 and 26 years, while one could not

recall. At time of their examination in 1960, the men comprising

this sample had been eunuchs for an average of 54

years. Characteristics they shared with descriptions of other

castrated men included: beardlessness; enlargement of

breasts in nine eunuchs out of 25; tall stature in 12 (where

height > 170 cm); and five displayed unusually small prostates.

The average height was 167.7 cm (range 152–

179 cm), and five of the tallest 12 had been castrated before

the age of 15 years.

Physical characteristics also ascribed to court eunuchs include

increase of body weight and voice change to a more

falsetto pitch. The former may be attributed to the reduction

in physical activity and the ready availability of food as a

palace servant. Clinical studies of patients with orchiectomy

show an average weight gain of 10% that is generally localized

in the abdominal and hip region, which increased patient

risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease (Zitzmann

and Nieschlag, 2001; Keating et al., 2006). Moreover,

changes in the lungs and cardiovascular systems from hormonal

changes decreased the ability for efficient oxygen uptake

and blood flow throughout the body (Tsai, 1996), also

likely resulting in decreased physical exertion. The retention

of a boyish, high voice stems from low levels of testosterone

during puberty, which prevents male-type laryngeal development

(Jenkins, 1998). The dramatic decrease in sex steroids

also leads to general loss of elasticity, with wrinkling

of the skin, stiffening of joints, and decrease in muscle

strength (Tsai, 1996). There is no evidence that castration

significantly affects male lifespan (Wilson and Roehrborn,

1999).

Studies of human castration have many limitations, not

the least of which is the relative rarity of modern cases and

cultural taboos. The long history of institutionalized eunuchism

in ancient China provides the potential to study the

health consequences of castration from a biocultural standpoint.

This paper describes the skeletal remains of two adult

eunuchs from pre-modern China, documenting the skeletal

and dental changes that may be associated with castration, as

well as skeletal changes reflective of the imperial servant

lifestyle.

Materials and Methods

In 2003 the skeletal remains of two adult males were excavated

by a team led by Professor Chen Guang (then at the

Peking Archaeological Institute). These burials were located

in the cemetery at Wutasi, Beijing, People’s Republic of

China. This cemetery had over 60 burials, with several

tombs marked as interments of Ming Dynasty (1368–1644

AD) palace eunuchs based on the associated tomb inscriptions

(Di and Cao, 2003). Among these eunuch burials, the

two studied in this paper include one eunuch we designated

Burial M1, while the second, given the designation of Burial

M2, had a tomb inscription and documentation in his burial

indicating the eunuch’s name was ‘Huang Zhong,’ a eunuch

of the Ming period (C. Guang, personal communication).

Unfortunately, there are no other publications on the analysis

of the excavation that could help verify with certainty the

eunuch status of all burials labeled as such, but it has been

documented in other cases that tomb inscriptions indicated

the eunuch status of those interred, as such people were at

times accorded relatively high status and given elaborate

burial treatments reflecting that power (Mai, 1977). Thus,

based on archeological context, these individuals, whose

tomb inscriptions labeled them as eunuchs, are indeed eunuchs,

and the osteological evidence also suggests a life of

labor and/or abnormalities in epiphyseal closure that are associated

with eunuchism. The remains were examined while

they were held at the Research Center for Chinese Frontier

Archaeology at Jilin University, Jilin Province.

Osteological analysis followed protocol outlined in Standards

for Data Collection of Human Skeletal Remains

(Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). Owing to limitations in time

and available equipment, osteological examination by one

author (J. Eng) were conducted within a day and consisted of

macroscopic observation and photographic documentation,

without aid of an osteometric board to measure long bone

length. The lengths of long bones were later estimated based

on these photographs (taken with a scale) to approximate

maximum lengths in centimeters. To determine the accuracy

of these measurements estimated from photographs as compared

to measurements from an osteometric board, J. Eng

conducted a pilot study with sample adult long bones

(n = 11). The same camera was used, replicating the staging

of the photographs (i.e. location of the scale by the bones,

angle of focus, and camera distance), and the procedure was

repeated three times. Maximum length measurements estimated

from the photographs of these sample bones were

then compared to similar measurements taken from an osteometric

board. The average standard deviation was a

2.4 mm over-measurement based on photographs, which

shows that this technique produces relatively little measurement

error.

The remains of the two individuals were well preserved

with fully intact skulls (Figure 2), although not all postcranial

elements had been recovered. They were clearly discrete

individuals, not only indicated by the fact that the excavators

had packed them separately and by the different colorations

of the remains, attributable to differences in soil conditions

for each burial, but also suggested by the body size and

chronological age differences between the two skeletons

(discussed below). Observations were made for sex and age

determinations, and pathological conditions and activityrelated

skeletal changes were also recorded.

Case 1: Burial M1

Burial M1 is that of a relatively complete skeleton, but has

some postmortem damage and is missing the right humerus,

radius, and ulna, hand and foot bones, as well as several vertebrae.

Age-related changes to pelvic morphology suggest

that this person was in his mid-30s at time of death. Other

features support this age assessment, including the degree of

cranial suture closure, tooth wear, and full epiphyseal closure

of all long bones. Sexually dimorphic features of the

skull and pelvis are clearly male. On the basicranium, just

anterior to the right occipital condyle, the bone is thin and

extremely porous, which may be the result of localized postmortem

damage, although adjacent bony elements are not

affected (Figure 3).

110 J.T. ENG ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

The central maxillary incisors and right M1 have lesions

from linear enamel hypoplasia, with three arrest lesions on

left I1, two on right I1, and one on right M1. Crown formation

of these affected teeth occurs at about the same time, so the

lesions likely reflect the same stress events. There is evidence

of an alveolar abscess around right M3, antemortem

tooth loss of left I1, and slight alveolar resorption around left

M1 and right M1. The left mandibular condyle displays slight

proliferative growth on the superior portion, and is more bulbous

than the right, suggesting slight temporomandibular

joint disease on the left, although the condylar fossa exhibits

no change.

Degenerative changes (pitting, marginal new bone proliferation,

and/or eburnation) were observed in the following

postcranial joints: the left shoulder, left elbow, left hip, and

left knee, which has eburnation on the anterior portion of the

lateral condyle (Figure 4). All of the five preserved vertebrae

(one cervical, two thoracic, two lumbar) show moderate

development of osteophytes on the margins of their bodies,

Figure 2. Skulls of eunuchs, anterior and left lateral views. (Above) Burial M1. (Below) Burial M2.

Figure 3. Right basioccipital of Burial M1 displays porosity.

Vol. 118, 2010 SKELETAL EFFECTS OF CASTRATION 111

and both lumbar vertebrae exhibit a Schmorl’s node on the

superior surface.

The left tibia has a healed fracture just distal to midshaft

that resulted in a shortening of about 6 mm in length relative

to the right tibia (Figure 5). Associated with this healed fracture

are the remnants of slight bony buildup of the callus located

on the medial aspect, as well as osteoperiostitis in the

surrounding area, extending 11.9 cm.

Case 2: Burial M2 (‘Huang Zhong’)

This male, named ‘Huang Zhong,’ is also a relatively

complete skeleton, missing only the smaller elements (hand

and some foot bones), most vertebrae, clavicles, and ribs.

Age estimation included assessment of multiple indicators of

development. The epiphyses of several long bones were only

partially fused or completely unfused, in the case of his distal

ulnae. This pattern of fusion would normally indicate that

he died in his mid-to-late teens (Table 1). However, castration

is known to delay the rate of epiphysis closure in individuals

castrated before maturity (Silberberg and Silberberg,

1971), while tooth formation is regulated more strongly by

non-sex steroids such as growth hormone (Zhang et al.,

1992). In his case, the third molars had fully erupted and

have slight wear, and furthermore, the auricular surface retains

slight (youthful) transverse ridges. Thus, based on the

dental (and pelvic auricular) information ‘Huang Zhong’

(Burial M2) was likely a young adult, about 20–24 years old

at death.

Compared to Burial M1, who was in his 30s at time of

death, Burial M2 has much less overall wear on teeth,

consistent with a younger adult age determination. Several

Figure 4. Distal left femur of Burial M1 with osteoarthritis; note

the eburnation.

Figure 5. Tibiae of Burial M2. (Above) Fracture just below midshaft of left tibia, seen as superior tibia. (Below) Left tibia, healed fracture.

112 J.T. ENG ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

sexually dimorphic features of the cranium (supraorbital

margin, glabella, mastoid process, and nuchal area) are ambiguous,

but the mandible, subpubic region, and greater sciatic

notch have a male morphology. The pelvic morphology

is relatively diagnostic considering his young age (e.g.

Walker, 2005).

There are two linear enamel hypoplasia lesions present on

the lower right canine. The lower left central and lateral incisors

(Figure 6) have ‘fused’ crowns and roots (also known

as ‘double teeth’ or ‘twinning’), a result of primary developmental

abnormalities of the teeth whereby two separate

tooth buds united at some time during their development

(Aguilo et al., 1999).

The postcranial elements do not have any marked pathological

conditions. There is no skeletal indication as to cause

of death. As seen in Table 2, the length of Burial M2’s long

bones and associated stature estimates are substantially

longer than those of Burial M1. Using femur length to calculate

stature based on Trotter and Gleser (1958), Burial M1

has a stature of approximately 179 cm, while Burial M2 has

a stature of approximately 188 cm. In addition to his tall stature,

the bones from Burial M2 were relatively gracile.

Long bone dimensions

To determine whether body size and long bone lengths of

the two burials were affected by the documented hormonal

effects of castration, these data were compared to measurements

taken from other archeological skeletal samples collected

by the primary author (J. Eng). These other samples

derive from different time periods and varied sites along

China’s northern region and from central China in Henan

province (Eng, 2007; Walker and Eng, 2007). Mean measurements

of the humerus, femur, and tibia from these samples

were compared to the corresponding eunuch long bone

measurement where available (the ulna and radius of Burial

M2 were not included owing to lack of distal epiphyseal fusion)

(Table 3). The measures of the eunuch long bones

were then transformed to Z-scores to compare with each region

(Table 4).

In most instances, the long bones of both eunuchs were

longer than the comparative groups (Z-score > 2.00). Both

eunuchs have longer femoral lengths than the comparative

regions (except for Burial M1’s comparison to the northwestern

sample). Of note are the unusually high Z-scores of

Burial M2, the eunuch who may have been castrated in his

youth. Burial M2 has Z-scores of 5.00 SD or higher compared

to all groups except the northwestern sample, where

the Z-score was still above 2.00. On the other hand, the data

on humerofemoral and crural limb proportions (respectively,

humerus: femur and tibia: femur) of these eunuchs fall within

the range of proportions found in the comparative samples

(Table 5).

Discussion

The earliest records of eunuchs in China consist of pictographs

on the oracle bones of the Bronze Age Shang Dynasty

Table 1. Age estimation (years) of Burial M2 based on rates of

epiphyseal fusiona

Bone Beginning Active Complete

Proximal humerus 19–20

Distal humerus 16

Proximal ulna 18–19

Distal ulna 17b

Proximal radius 18–19

Distal radius 17

Proximal femur (head) 17–18

Distal femur 16–21

Proximal tibia 16–22

Distal tibia 17–18

a From McKern (1970, n.d.), McKern and Stewart (1957) and

Ubelaker (1989). Note, estimates from these sources derive from

North American male samples.

b Element completely unfused.

Figure 6. Mandibular left incisors of Burial M2 display fusion.

To the left is a labial view, and to the right is a lingual view.

Table 2. Maximum lengths and stature estimatesa (in cm) of Burial

M1 and Burial M2

M1 Side Length Stature ±

Femur Left 49.5 178.995 3.8

Tibia Left 37.4b 170.836b 3.27

Tibia Right 38.0c 172.27c 3.27

M2

Femur Left 53.6 187.81 3.8

Femur Right 53.5 187.595 3.8

Tibia Left 44.5 187.805 3.27

Tibia Right 42.0 181.83 3.27

Fibula Left 42.0 181.36 3.24

Humerus Right 38.2 185.03 4.16

Radius Left 27.6d

Radius Right 23.8d

Ulna Left 28.8d

Ulna Right 25.8d

a Stature estimate based on Trotter and Glessar (1958) formulae for

Mongoloid sample.

b Fractured left tibia, which shortened maximum length.

c Missing the tip of the medial malleolus and hence this is an estimate

of maximum length.

d Unfused distal epiphysis, which precluded stature estimates.

Vol. 118, 2010 SKELETAL EFFECTS OF CASTRATION 113

(17th century–1122 BC). Eunuchs were known generally as

huanguan, or taijian, with differentiation made between

those castrated in childhood (‘pure from birth’) and those

emasculated in adulthood (‘pure of body’). Males were castrated

to make them ‘safer’ servants for the royal court and

also as a form of punishment that was considered second

only to death in severity. The primary source for eunuchs

was prisoners of war taken during campaigns against frontier

and neighboring hostile groups. Another source came

from tributes: eunuchism was practically Pan-Asian, and

countries such as Korea and northern Vietnam regularly sent

castrati as tribute to China (Tsai, 1996). There was also a domestic

supply of eunuchs from among the impoverished

peasants, often from poorer southern provinces. In these areas

that often suffered famine, the only recourse from starvation

or sale into slavery was self-castration or castration of a

son, since imperial eunuchs were assured a life of relative

comfort with regular stipend, room and board within palace

walls. While self-castration was repeatedly prohibited, when

dynasties such as the Ming sank into financial decay, desperate

males, often adults, took this course of action and clamored

for work at the palace (Anderson, 1990).

Eunuchs served the emperor, his queens and concubines,

and other members of the royal family. During the Ming Dynasty

there were 24 official agencies charged with various

aspects of palace maintenance, including care of furniture,

gardens, kitchens, rituals, cloths, entertainment, and armory,

so that their presence permeated all aspects of imperial life

(Mitamura, 1970). Beginning in the Ming Dynasty, some

were educated and became imperial secretaries, furthering

eunuch infiltration into the inner circles of the court. Ancient

Chinese historians describe them as venal, greedy sycophants,

perhaps in part because of jealousy over eunuchs’ intimate

access and influence over the emperor and imperial

policy (Yi, 1951; Tsai, 1996). By the end of the Ming Dynasty,

the number of eunuchs nationwide swelled to an estimated

100000, and they were fixtures of nearly every governmental

agency. The cases of eunuchs who wielded

extreme power were relatively rare, and most palace eunuchs

led routine lives that were restricted and dull (Tsai,

1996). In the present study, the burial treatment and lack of

elaborate grave goods associated with the two burials analyzed

here suggest they were ordinary eunuchs, though

‘Huang Zhong’ may have been a eunuch of some note as his

name was inscribed for his tomb.

Interpretation of Ming sample

Long bone lengths and height

The skeletal effects of castration are more clearly evident

in the long-limbed Burial M2, the young adult ‘Huang

Zhong.’ As noted previously, there is likely to be some slight

over-measurement (approximately 2.4 mm) using the photographs

to estimate long bone length, but even accounting for

that difference, the limbs are still relatively long. When observing

the humerofemoral and crural limb proportions of

these individuals to comparative ancient Asian samples,

there is no marked difference, suggesting there was no unusual

disproportion in limb development in these eunuchs.

On the other hand, the maximum lengths of Burial M2’s humerus,

femur, and tibia are significantly greater than that of

the comparative samples. Taken together, the longer limb dimensions

of Burial M2 and the retarded rate of epiphyseal

Table 3. Long bone measurements (in cm) of eunuch burialsa compared with archeological skeletal datab from China

Region Time

Humerus Femur Tibia

n Avg. SD n Avg. SD n Avg. SD

Northwestern 2000 BC–220 AD 35 31.9 1.560 52 45.1 2.412 40 36.8 2.506

North central 1000 BC–1368 AD 3 31.7 0.611 24 43.2 1.968 9 35.2 1.604

Northeastern 3800 BC–1368 AD 88 31.1 1.300 141 43.8 1.867 131 34.7 1.664

Central 476 BC–220 AD 21 30.8 1.396 18 42.8 1.756 16 34.6 1.648

Burial M1 n/a 49.5 38.0c

Burial M2 38.2 53.6 43.3

a Measurements of eunuch long bone lengths were averaged if both sides of an element were present.

b The comparative Asian data are recalculated from raw data collected by one author (J. Eng) in the northern provinces and from the centrally

located Henan province (Eng, 2007; Walker and Eng, 2007). The left and right elements of an individual were averaged, and the average of the

total sample region is presented here.

c This is an estimate of maximum length of right tibia, missing the tip of the medial malleolus. The left tibia was shortened in life owing to a fracture

and was not used here.

Table 4. Z-scores comparisona of eunuch (Burial M1 and Burial

M2) measurements with archeological skeletal data from China

Humerus Femur Tibia

M1 M2 M1 M2 M1 M2

Northwestern NA 4.04 1.82 3.52 0.48 2.59

North central NA 10.64 3.20 5.28 1.75 5.05

Northeastern NA 5.46 3.05 5.25 1.98 5.17

Central NA 5.30 3.82 6.15 2.06 5.28

a Italics indicate Z-scores lower than 2.00 SD.

Table 5. Comparison of limb proportions of the eunuchs, Burial M1

and Burial M2, with archeological skeletal data from China

Humerus: Femur Tibia: Femur

Northwestern 0.71 0.82

North central 0.73 0.82

Northeastern 0.72 0.79

Central 0.72 0.81

Burial M1 NA 0.77

Burial M2 0.71 0.81

114 J.T. ENG ET AL. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE

closure relative to tooth development in this individual suggest

that Burial M2 was castrated before puberty. However,

when compared to the average height (168 cm) of surviving

20th-century Chinese eunuchs in Wu and Gu’s (1991) study,

both Burial M1 and Burial M2 are taller than Wu and Gu’s

criterion for tall stature (height > 170 cm). Thus, with respect

to the marked differences between the long bone

lengths of these two eunuchs, this may be a factor of: (1) genetic

heterogeneity and height potential related to their origins

from different populations; or (2) the different ages at

which they were each castrated, with the longer-limbed

Burial M2 castrated in pre-puberty before epiphyseal closure

of long bones; or (3) individual differences in frailty between

them including influences from childhood health and

nutrition. These factors may not be mutually exclusive.

Osteoporosis

Although circumstances prevented weighing and taking

radiographs of the skeletons, bones did not feel markedly

lighter than ‘normal’ ancient bones of East and Central

Asian populations that the authors have observed. Burial M1

has some signs suggestive of osteoporosis, though these indicators

may be due to his more advanced age at death. His

skull has slight porosity in the basioccipital area, and although

the localization of the visible porosity does not fully

support osteoporosis, there may have been further thinning

not immediately visible throughout the skull. Burial M1 had

few vertebrae to study for possible kyphosis, but there are

degenerative changes in all vertebrae present, which may

also be due to age-related changes or lifestyle. The healed

fracture on the left tibia may also be (very slight) evidence

for osteoporosis, though accidental injury is a much more

likely cause.

Oral health

The presence of enamel hypoplasia on both eunuchs indicates

stress during childhood, which may be expected as

most eunuchs of this period were either castrated to escape

poverty, to serve as tributes, or as prisoners of war. Neither

individual has dental caries, but Burial M1 has an aveolar

abscess, antemortem loss of a tooth, and resorption of the

alveolar bone—all indicative of poor dental health. The

fused left incisors in Burial M2’s mandible marks a relatively

rare find, at least among people of European ancestry (less

than 1%, e.g. Jarvinen et al., 1980; Barac-Furtinovic and

Skrinjaric, 1991), although it was found in slightly higher

frequencies (~4%) in one modern Japanese sample (Yonezu

et al., 1997). When present, it is more prevalent in males and

in the anterior teeth, usually of the mandible (Razak and

Nik-Hussein, 1986; Duncan and Helpin, 1987; Yonezu et

al., 1997). Although no environmental factors have been

linked to the development of fused teeth, it is more frequent

among siblings (Razak and Nik-Hussein, 1986). Clinical

problems associated with fused teeth include increased prevalence

of caries, supernumerary teeth, impaction of successors,

and aplasia (Brook and Winter, 1970; Ravn, 1971), but

such was not the case for Burial M2, whose teeth appeared

unaffected.

Degenerative joint disease

Burial M1 has signs of degenerative changes at several

major joints, while Burial M2 has none. Burial M1 was older

than Burial M2 at age of death, which may account for the

higher observation of degenerative lesions. It should also be

noted that castrated boys were often more favored by the

court ladies and treated like young girls, and thus had fewer

manual labor activities than adult eunuchs (Mitamura,

1970). Thus, if Burial M2 had been castrated in youth, and

died soon afterwards in his early adulthood, this may explain

why it appears he led a relatively less active lifestyle than

Burial M1.

Conclusion

The burials of two Ming palace eunuchs provide new insight

into the skeletal changes associated with castration, as

well as clues to eunuch life in the Chinese imperial court.

These eunuchs may have been castrated at different periods

of growth and development, as suggested by the long limbs

and partially fused epiphyses of the young adult ‘Huang

Zhong’ (Burial M2). Arthritic changes and a healed fracture

in Burial M1 suggests he led a harsher life than experienced

by Burial M2, who may have had a more pampered life favored

by court ladies, if he was castrated in youth. Dental

health suggests both experienced childhood stress, possibly

owing to poverty or wartime, which may have precipitated

their entry into the financially secure eunuch service. While

this report has offered some new information on the lives of

two eunuchs from the Ming Dynasty, it is by no means a

general life characterization of the health of eunuchs. Future

studies of other eunuch burials will shed further light into

this once secretive, yet fascinating cultural phenomenon.

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by support given to J. Eng by

the following granting agencies during an early visit to

China (in 2003) and during the collection of her dissertation

data: Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Research Abroad Program

(Award No. p022a040064); Pacific Rim Research Grant,

University of California (Project Reference No. 04TPRRP

08-0011); Humanities and Social Sciences Research Grant,

UCSB; and the National Science Foundation Graduate Research

Fellowship. The authors would like to extend deepest

thanks to Professor Chen Guang for permission to analyze

the material. J. Eng would like to thank her dissertation advisor,

Dr Phillip Walker, and several members of the Walker

Lab who read and commented on early drafts.

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